[Explainer Series] Sustainable Development: The Theory That Came Before

There has long been concern about the state of the environment in relation to development across different societies. The lack of balance between the development of human societies and ecological limits has led to ever-rising environmental problems and potentially catastrophic consequences. Several factors have contributed to this, and they can be grouped into three categories: 1) anthropogenic causes, 2) natural causes, and 3) other contributing factors. Category 1 includes economic growth, urbanisation, large-scale tourism, and the development of technology. Category 2 comprises droughts, volcanic eruptions, fires, soil erosion, winds, and earthquakes. Finally, Category 3 includes limited scientific, material, and technological opportunities within society.

Conceptual frameworks on the environment and development emerged in the 1960s. When the environmental movement is discussed, Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring, published in 1962, comes to mind as a body of work commonly said to have marked the beginning of the environmental movement. Sustainability as a concept was formed when a relationship was established between widespread pollution and pesticides, the impacts of pollution on all living organisms, and several proposals for resource management that sought to use resources to provide for the current generation without depleting them for the next. During the decades that followed, there was an increase in awareness of the growing need to balance environmental well-being with human needs. Consequently, a large amount of literature based on this theme exists, and a wide variety of social and political policies have been developed in response. This article will detail the historical background of sustainable development as a concept.

Small is Beautiful

Small is Beautiful by Ernst F. Schumacher is an example of this. It was published in 1973 and argued that the function of economics should be to serve humans—not for humans to serve economics. When the book was published, globalisation had only recently begun, and the global community was experiencing an energy crisis. This provided Schumacher with the perfect opportunity to critique the common perception of economic development and the extent to which its methods were inefficient. As the book's name suggests, Schumacher argued that small-scale technology would work better than large conglomerates and a faceless economy that served no one.

In four sections titled "The Modern World," "Resources," "The Third World," and "Organization and Ownership," he discusses how unsustainable the economy is and proposes potential alternatives to capitalism. His central principle is that universal prosperity is possible for all, which is how we can maintain a peaceful society. This stance has been heavily criticized as contradictory, since exploiting natural resources and labour is often how prosperity, as we know it, is achieved.

Social and historical factors influence human perceptions. This is relevant in the relationship between developmental processes and the environment. During the Industrial Revolution, a worldview of human welfare evolved—one founded on materialism and growing wealth, mainly through economic development, which is often measured through economic growth and industrial expansion. This worldview, built on the "conquest" of nature, was widely adopted and became almost universal by the mid-twentieth century. Developed countries pursued a higher quality of life, while less developed countries accelerated industrialization to emulate them. The world began to focus on increasing development to such an extent that it seemed as though no other issues were important.

There are different indicators of growth. When a country is in the process of "developing," it expands its productive capacity. The most commonly used—and crudest—indicator is the Gross National Product (GNP), often used interchangeably with GNP per capita. The standard of living of all humans depends on economic growth, which must match the pace of population increases. Development and economic growth are closely linked. However, an unfortunate outcome of these relationships is that the physical environment has been sacrificed in the pursuit of economic development. The quest for wealth and the mistreatment of the Earth's natural resources have occurred on a collectivist level, an individualistic level, or a combination of both. Negative environmental impacts caused by the above began to raise concern in growing parts of society.

The Limits to Growth

These environmental concerns grew in the 1960s, and conventional methods of economic growth were questioned. Thus, in 1972, the Club of Rome published a crucial report, The Limits to Growth, authored by significant social and political figures. This report featured a critique of the industrial worldview, which peaked from the late 1960s to the early 1970s—a period known as the "Doomsday" debate. The critique questioned the common objectives of the pursuit of growth. The central argument of The Limits to Growth was that development could not be pursued without limits, because the Earth's natural resources are finite.

Furthermore, the exponential growth model was disrupting the sensitive equilibrium between resources and population. The report ultimately recommended that the growth patterns of the time come to an end to maintain balance. As a result, a few calls emerged from developed countries for “zero-growth” strategies.

The Limits to Growth was critical of "growth fetishism," which sparked interest in a new perspective on the relationship between economic development and the environment. However, these anti-growth views attracted criticism. Later arguments suggested that there is no inherent tension between managing environmental resources and pursuing economic growth. These debates are often considered the origins of “sustainable development” as a concept. Although it became widely known in 1980 during the presentation of the World Conservation Strategy, it was first mentioned at the Cocoyoc Declaration, adopted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and UNCTAD in Cocoyoc, Mexico, in 1974. Initially, the strategy was about conserving living resources to achieve sustainable development.

Moreover, prior to the 1970s, development remained largely equated with economic growth until it became popular opinion that consumerism and economic expansion placed excessive pressure on the environment, resulting in high levels of pollution, unhealthy living environments, illness, and poverty. Additionally, the overexploitation of natural resources—especially fossil fuels and raw materials—led to discussions about the needs of future generations. This laid the groundwork for defining the long-term and responsible use of non-renewable resources, an idea that would later be formalized as intergenerational equity in the Brundtland Report’s definition of sustainable development—a key element of the most widely cited definition of the term.

The next article in this series will explore sustainable development in more depth.

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Moliehi Mafantiri is a registered Candidate EAP, and an environmental scientist interested in climate policy. She writes this in her capacity as the Supporting Contact Point, LCOY South Africa 2025, representing the Global Shapers Community: Tshwane Hub.

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